The history of medicine is marked by groundbreaking pharmaceutical discoveries: molecules capable of blocking specific pathological mechanisms and radically changing the prognosis of many diseases. However, identifying an effective active compound is only the first step towards a drug’s success. An equally critical challenge lies in developing a pharmaceutical formulation capable of directing the drug to its biological target, maximising efficacy while minimising unwanted effects. In pharmacological terms, the goal is to increase the therapeutic index while reducing off-target effects. Even the most promising molecule may remain ineffective if it cannot be delivered precisely to its intended target.
This is the direction in which current research is evolving: the development of smart pharmaceutical formulations. This evolution has been driven by the increasing complexity of modern diseases – including solid tumours, neurodegenerative disorders, and multidrug-resistant infections – which require a level of therapeutic specificity and adaptability beyond what conventional systems can provide.
The limitations of traditional approaches, including poor bioavailability, systemic toxicity, and inefficient targeting, have led to the development of a new generation of controlled-release technologies. In this context, nanotechnology has emerged as a transformative solution, enabling the design of nanoparticles capable of encapsulating and releasing drugs in a controlled manner.
What is nanotechnology and how is it revolutionising targeted drug delivery?
Nanotechnology applied to medicine operates at the nanometre scale, that is, on the order of billionths of a metre. These delivery systems can interact with cells and receptors with unprecedented precision. Unlike traditional methods, which distribute drugs diffusely throughout the body, targeted drug delivery systems are engineered to selectively direct the active compound to a specific organ, tissue, or cell type.
This level of precision reduces damage to healthy tissues, lowers the risk of systemic side effects, and improves treatment adherence. Clinical successes confirm their impact. Some liposomal formulations have been shown to reduce the cardiotoxicity of doxorubicin by approximately 50%. Similarly, a lipid nanoparticle-based drug was the first to use RNA interference (RNAi) technology, paving the way for the platforms that later enabled the development of mRNA vaccines.
Types of nanoparticles used in smart drugs
Pharmaceutical nanotechnology encompasses several types of nanoparticles, each with distinct structural and functional characteristics.
- Liposomes: Spherical vesicles composed of phospholipid bilayers. They improve drug solubility and optimise pharmacokinetics. They were the first nanocarriers to be tested clinically and remain among the most validated systems in oncology.
- Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs): These particles offer high physical stability and enable controlled and prolonged release of the active compound.
- Polymeric Nanoparticles (PNPs): Derived from natural or synthetic biodegradable polymers, they allow versatile drug encapsulation and surface functionalisation for molecular targeting.
- Dendrimers: Highly branched macromolecules capable of presenting multiple functional groups on their surface and accommodating drugs within internal cavities.
- Inorganic Nanoparticles: These include silica-based, carbon-based, and magnetic nanoparticles. They provide a large surface area, conductivity, and responsiveness to external stimuli such as magnetic fields or light.
- Virus-Like Particles (VLPs): Beyond synthetic systems, research is exploring biologically inspired platforms such as viral nanoparticles (VNPs) and virus-like particles (VLPs). VNPs are derived from plant, bacterial, or mammalian viruses and may contain genetic material. VLPs, by contrast, are non-infectious because they lack a viral genome, while retaining the structure of the viral capsid.
Clinical applications of nanotechnology in medicine
Oncology
In oncology, targeted drug delivery systems have transformed therapeutic strategies. Antibody–drug conjugates (ADCs), such as brentuximab vedotin in malignant lymphomas, enable cytotoxic agents to be delivered directly to tumour cells while sparing healthy tissues.
Cardiovascular Diseases
Cardiovascular diseases, still the leading cause of death worldwide, are beginning to benefit from nanosystems designed to improve specificity, enhance biodegradability, and reduce toxicity in conditions such as myocardial infarction and heart failure.
Neurological Diseases
Crossing the blood–brain barrier remains one of the greatest therapeutic challenges. Innovative approaches, such as intranasal administration, make it possible to bypass this barrier through the olfactory and trigeminal nerves, opening new therapeutic perspectives for aggressive brain tumours such as glioblastoma.
Infectious Diseases
Targeted delivery systems can improve antibiotic efficacy and help combat antimicrobial resistance. pH-sensitive or enzyme-responsive nanocarriers can selectively release drugs within infected microenvironments, which are often characterised by increased acidity.
Emerging trends: Artificial intelligence and nanoelectronic drug delivery systems
One of the most significant trends is the development of increasingly intelligent and integrated drug delivery systems. The convergence of materials science, biomedicine, and pharmacology is essential for creating safe and effective therapeutic platforms. Particularly promising is a new generation of digitally enabled nanotherapies that combine smart carriers with real-time biosensors and artificial intelligence algorithms. Experimental prototypes have paired glucose-sensitive polymer vesicles with wearable skin sensors, enabling fully automated, on-demand insulin release without manual intervention. At the same time, machine learning algorithms are accelerating the design of new materials and personalised drug-release kinetics.
The convergence of precision engineering and biomedical sciences has also ushered in the era of Nanoelectronic Drug Delivery Systems (NEDDS). These systems integrate nanocarriers with sensors, microprocessors, and wireless communication modules, enabling real-time control over dose, timing, and site of therapeutic release. In oncology, NEDDS may monitor tumour pH or specific biomarkers and adjust drug administration accordingly. In neurology, they could release neuroprotective agents in response to neuronal activity.
Remaining challenges
Despite remarkable progress, significant challenges remain. Overcoming biological barriers such as the vascular endothelium, the tumour extracellular matrix, and the blood–brain barrier remains highly complex. The design and manufacturing of these sophisticated systems may also limit large-scale adoption and increase costs. Ultimately, clinical success will depend on an increasingly detailed understanding of cellular transport and internalisation mechanisms.
Further reading
- Eze VHU et al. “Systematic review of nanoelectronic drug delivery systems advancing technological innovation, clinical integration, and personalized therapy. “Front. Nanotechnol. 2026; 7:1686599.
- Srivastava A et al. “Innovations in targeted drug delivery: From nanotechnology to clinical applications.” Next Nanotechnology. 2026;9.